C value: The amount
of DNA found in the haploid set of chromosomes.
CAAT box: One of the eukaryotic promotor elements found in approximately
80 base pairs upstream of the initiation site, but it can function
at a number of other locations and in either orientation with respect
to the start point. The consensus sequence is 5'-GGCCAATCT-3'.
calcaneus: Heel bone.
calotte: The bones
of the cranial vault, the calvaria without the cranial base.
calvaria (calvarium):
The bones of the cranium without the face or mandible.
cancellous (trabecular,
spongy) bone: Internal bone tissue that is porous and lightweight.
cancer: Diseases characterized
by the uncontrolled and abnormal division of eukaryotic cells and
by the spread of the disease (metastasis) to disparate sites in
the organism.
canine: A conical or
spade-like tooth (depending on species) located between the incisors
and premolars.
canine cutting complex:
The slashing effect as the outer front (mesiobuccal) edge of the
most anterior lower premolar slides along the back of the upper
canine when the jaws close.
canine fossa: A vertical
furrow on the maxilla under the infraorbital foramen, extending
toward the base of the zygomatic process of the maxilla and to the
side of the nose.
canine jugum (juga):
Vertical ridge in the maxilla caused by an enlarged canine root.
caniniform: Shaped
like a canine of conical form.
capping (5'-capping):
The addition of a methylated guanine nucleotide (a "cap")
to the 5' end of a premessenger RNA molecule; the cap is retained
on the mature mRNA molecule.
carnivore: (1) an animal
that eats primarily the flesh of other animals; (2) members of the
mammalian order Carnivora (which include cats, dogs, skunks, raccoons,
and bears).
carotid foramen (canal):
A large circular foramen passing through the petrous of the temporal,
that provides a passageway for the internal carotid artery and the
carotid nerves.
carpal bones: Small
bones of the wrist; in humans the scaphoid, lunate, triquetram,
pisiform, hamate, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium.
carpal tunnel: A tunnel
on the palm side of the hand created between the arch formed by
the carpal bones and the fibrous band that draws the ends of the
arch together. The long flexor tendons for the fingers pass through
this tunnel, which holds themin and prevents them from bowing when
the wrist is moved.
carrying capacity:
The number of individuals that can be optimally supported, given
a particular subsistence adaptation.
cartilage: A flexible
connective tissue that is an important part of most of the skeleton
and that calcifies at various stages of growth.
catabolite repression
(glucose effect): The inactivation of an inducible bacterial operon
in the presence of glucose even though the operon's inducer is present.
catastrophe theory:
A branch of mathematical topology developed by Rene Thom which is
concerned with the way in which nonlinear interactions within systems
can produce sudden and dramatic effects; it is argued that there
are only a limited number of ways in which such changes can take
place, and these are defined as elementary catastrophes.
catastrophic age profile:
A mortality pattern based on bone or tooth wear analysis, and corresponding
to a "natural" age distribution in which the older the
age group, the fewer the individuals it has. This pattern is often
found in contexts such as flash floods, epidemics, or volcanic eruptions.
cation-ratio dating:
This method aspires to the direct dating of rock carvings and engravings,
and is potentially applicable to Paleolithic artifacts with a strong
patina caused by exposure to desert dust. It depends on the principle
that cations of certain elements are more soluble than others; they
leach out of rock varnish moe rapidly than the less soluble elements,
and their concentration decreases with time.
caudal vertebrae: The
vertebrae of the tail, below the sacrum.
cDNA: DNA copies made
from an RNA template catalyzed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
cDNA library: The collection
of molecular clones that contains cDNA copies of the entire mRNA
population of a cell.
cell cycle: The clinical
process of growth and cellular reproduction in unicellular and multicellular
eukaryotes. The cycle includes nuclear division, or mitosis, and
cell division, or cytokinesis.
cell division: A process
whereby one cell divides to produce two cells.
cell-free, protein-synthesizing
system: A system, isolated from cells, that contains ribosomes,
mRNA, tRNAs with amino acids attached, and all the necessary protein
factors for the in vitro synthesis of polypeptides.
cellular oncogene (c-onc):
The genes, present in a functional state in cancerous cells, that
are responsible for the cancerous state.
cementum: A soft, bone-like
tissue covering tooth roots that anchors them to the ligament covering
the alveolar bone.
centi-Morgan (cM):
The map unit. It is sometimes called a centi-Morgan in honor of
T.H. Morgan.
central place theory:
Developed by the geographer Christaller to explain the spacing and
function of the settlement landscape. Under idealized conditions,
he argued, central places of the same size and nature would be equidistant
from each other, surrounded by secondary centers with their own
smaller satellites. In spite of its limitations, central place theory
has found useful applications in archaeology as a preliminary heuristic
device.
centromeres (kinetochore):
A specialized region of a chromosome seen as a constriction under
the microscope. This region is important in the activities of the
chromosomes during cellular division.
Cephalic Index: The
ratio of the breadth to the length of the skull.
cercopithecine: Referring
to members of the monkey subfamily Cercopithecinae.
cerebellar fossa: Two
broad depressions on the internal surface of the occiput, holding
the cerebellar lobes of the brain.
cerebellar lobe: One
of the lobes of the cerebellum.
cerebellum: Area of
the brain lying below and behind the cerebrum, functioning in proprioception,
replaying feedback from muscle activity and motions back to the
cortex for finer adjustments and coordination of movement.
cerebral cortex: Pertaining
to the cerebrum, the front and upper portion of the brain, including
the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
cerebral fossae: Two
broad depressions on the internal surface of the occiput, holding
the posterior part of the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex.
cerebral lobe: A division
of the cerebral cortex at the rear of the brain.
cerebrum: The major
part of the brain, occupying the upper part of the cranium, comprised
of the two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
cervical: Pertaining
to the neck, as in the seven neck vertebrae.
chaine operatoire:
Ordered chain of actions, gestures, and processes in a production
sequence (e.g. of a stone tool or a pot) which led to the transformation
of a given material towards the finished product. The concept, introduced
by Andre Leroi-Gourhan, is significant in allowing the archaeologist
to infer back from the finished artifact to the procedures, the
intentionality in the production sequence, and ultimately to the
conceptual template of the maker.
chain-terminating codon:
One of three codons for which no normal tRNA molecule exists with
an appropriate anticodon. A nonsense codon in an mRNA specifies
the termination of polypeptide synthesis.
chalcedony: A cryptocrystalline
fibrous quartz, usually light colored and translucent.
character: An observable
phenotypic feature of the developing, or fully developed organism
that is the result of gene action, environmental stress, or a combination
of the two.
character displacement:
A divergence of characters in competing sympatric species resulting
from selection to reduce competition over limiting resources.
character state: The
particular expression of a feature; for instance, the Cephalic Index
might be low, hair color might be red or brown.
charged tRNA: The product
if an amino acid added to a tRNA.
charging: The act of
adding an amino acid to the tRNA.
cheek teeth: The premolars
and the molars.
chert: A compact cryptocrystalline
or microcrystalline variety of quartz originating from a sedimentary
context.
chiefdom: A term used
to describe a society that operates on the principle of ranking,
i.e. differential social status. Different lineages are graded on
a scale of prestige, calculated by how closely related one is to
the chief. The chiefdom generally has a permanent ritual and ceremonial
center, as well as being characterized by local specialization in
crafts.
chignon: Another name
for the occipital bun.
chopper: A stone made
by taking a few flakes off a pebble or rock fragment, to produce
a sharp cutting edge.
chron (polarity chron
or epoch): A main subdivision of time having predominately one magnetic
polarity.
chronometric dating:
See absolute dating.
chiasma: A cross-shaped
structure formed during crossing-over and visible during the diplonema
stage of meiosis.
chiasma interference
(chromosomal interference): The physical interference caused by
the breaking and rejoinng of chromatids that reduces the probability
of more than one crossing-over event occurring near another one
in one part of the meiotic tetrad.
chi-square (X2) test:
A statistical procedure that determines what constitutes a significant
difference between observed results and results expected on the
basis of a particular hypothesis; a goodness-of-fit test.
chloroplast: The cellular
organelle found only in green plants that is the site of photosynthesis
in the cells containing it.
chorionic villus sampling:
A procedure in which a sample od chorionic villus tissue of a developing
fetus is examined for chromosomal abnormalities.
chromatid: One of the
two visibly distinct longitudinal subunits of all replicated chrromosomes
hat becomes visible between early prophase and metaphase of mitosis.
chromatin: The piece
of DNA-protein complex that is studied and analyzed. Each chromatin
fragment reflects the general features of chromosomes but not the
specifics of any individual chromosome.
chromosomal aberation:
See chiasma interference.
chromosomal mutation:
The variation from the wild-type condition in either chromosome
number or chromosome structure.
chromosome: The genetic
material of a cell, complexed with protein and organized into a
number of linear structures. It literally means "colored body,"
because the threadlike structures are visible under the microscope
only after they are stained with dyes.
chromosome theory of
inheritance: The theory that the chromosomes are the carriers of
the genes. The first clear formulation of the theory was made by
both Sutton and Boveri, who independently recognized that the transmission
of chromosomes from one generation to the next closely paralleled
the pattern of transmission of genes from one generation to the
next.
chromosome walking:
A process to identify adjacent clones in a genomic library. In chromosome
walking, a piece of DNA is used to probe a genomic library to find
an overlapping clone; then a piece of that clone is used as a probe
to screen the library again for an overlapping clone; and so on.
cingulum: A shelf of
enamel running partially or completely around the base of a tooth
crown.
cis-dominance: The
phenomenon of a gene or DNA sequence controlling only genes that
are on the same contiguous piece of DNA.
cis-trans (complementation)
test: A test developed by E. Lewis, used to determine whether two
different mutations are within the same cistron (gene).
clade: A group composed
of all the species descended from a single common ancestor; a monophyletic
group.
cladistic homology:
Homologies based on comparing features in different clades or lineages.
cladistics (cladism):
Classification reflecting genealogy (recency of common descent)
by means of shared derived characters; also called phylogenetic
systematics.
cladogenesis: Species
formation, the branching of a single lineage to form two lineages.
cladogram: A branching
diagram, or dendrogram, based on genealogy and used to represent
phyletic relationships (rates of evolutionary divergence are ignored).
clan: A unilineal descent
group or category whose numbers trace patrilineal descent (patriclan)
or matrilineal descent (matriclan) from an apicle ancestor/ancestress
, but do not know the genealogical links that connect them to this
apical ancestor.
classical model: A
hypothesis of genetic variation proposing that natural populations
contain little genetic variation as a result of strong selection
for one allele.
classificatory system:
A mode of kinship classification in which collateral kin are terminologically
equated with lineal kin (FB = F, MZ = M, etc.).
clastic rock: A sedimentary
rock composed of particles or fragments of smaller rock or of organic
materials.
clavicle: Colarbone;
the bone connecting the sternum (breastbone) to the scapula (shoulder
blade).
CLIMAP: A project aimed
at producing paleoclimatic maps showing sea-surface temperatures
in different parts of the globe, at various periods.
clinal variation: Continuous,
gradual variation of a trait. In the context og geographic patterns
of a trait's variation, cline gradients are the lines that are perpendicular
to the clines and therefore mark the path of the trait's maximum
change.
clonal selection: A
process whereby cells that already have antibodies specific to an
antigen on their surfaces are stimulated to proliferate and secrete
that antibody.
cloning: The regeneration
of many copies of a DNA molecule (e.g., a recombinant DNA molecule)
by replication in a suitable host.
cloning vector (cloning
vehicle): A double-stranded DNA molecule that is able to replicate
autonomously in a host cell and with which a DNA fragment (or fragments)
can be bonded to form a recombinant DNA molecule for cloning.
cluster analysis: A
multivariate statistical technique which assesses the similarities
between units or assemblages, based on the occurrence or non-occurrence
of specific artifact types or other components within them.
coadapted genes: Sets
of genes whose frequencies in a population reflect a compromise
from different magnitudes and directions of selection acting on
their various effects.
coalescence (of genes):
The genealogical relations between genes show that all of the extant
varieties of a gene must have originated in a single gene; looking
from the present to the past, we can say that they descend from
a single form to which they coalesce.
coccyx: Tailbone; made
up of the caudal vertebrae, it is most often fused into a single
unit.
coding sequence: The
part of an mRNA molecule that specifies the amino acid sequence
of a polypeptide during translation.
codominance: The situation
in which the heterozygote exhibits the phenotypes of both homozygotes.
codon: A group of three
adjacent nucleotides in an mRNA molecule that specifies either one
amino acid in a polypeptide chain or the termination of polypeptide
synthesis.
coefficient of confidence:
A number that expresses the extent of chiasma interference throughout
a genetic map; the ratio of observed double-crossover frequency
to expected double-crossover frequency. Interference is equal to
1 minus the coefficient of confidence.
coefficient of variation
(CV): A dimensionless measure of relative variability, designed
to allow comparisons of variation for samples with different average
sizes, calculated as the ratio of the standard deviation to the
mean multiplied by 100.
cognate: A bilateral
kinsman or kinswomen.
cognatic descent: (1)
A mode of descent reckoning where all descendants of an apical ancestor/ancestress
through any combination of male or female links are included (2)
Synonymous with bilateral or consanguineal as in "cognatic
kinship".
cognition: The process
of acquiring knowledge, including perception, intuition, and reasoning.
cognitive archaeology:
The study of past ways of thought and symbolic structures from natural
remains.
cognitive map: Our
mental construct of the physical and social world and our position
in them.
collagen: A fibrous
protein that is the chief constituent part of connective tissue
in bone.
collateral: In kinship
terminologies, the siblings of lineal relatives (parents, grandparents)
and their descendants.
collateral flaking:
The process of removing expanding flakes removed from the lateral
margins of an objective piece at right angles to the longitudinal
axis.
colobine: Referring
to members of the monkey subfamily Colobinae.
colonizing species:
A species with a high rate of reproduction, readily able to take
advantage of new habitats because of its genetic variation and internal
subdivisions.
combinatorial gene
regulation: Transcriptional control (i.e., whether a gene is active
or inactive) achieved by combining relatively few regulatory proteins
(negative and positive) binding to particular DNA sequences.
compact (cortical)
bone: The dense bone tissue found on the outside of bones or the
walls of long bone shafts.
competitive exclusion:
The principle that no two species can coexist in the same locality
if they rely on the same limiting resources.
complementary-base
pairing: The hydrogen bonding between a particular purine and a
particular pyrimidine in double-stranded nucleic acid molecules
(DNA-DNA, DNA-RNA, or RNA-RNA). The major specific pairings are
guanine with cytosine and adenine with thymine or uracil.
complementary DNA:
See cDNA.
complementary test:
See cis-trans test.
complete dominance:
The case in which one allele is dominant to the other so that the
phenotypic level of the heterozygote is essentially iindistinguishable
from the homozygous dominant.
complete recessiveness:
The situation in which an allele is phenotypically expressed only
when it is homozygous.
compression rings:
Ripples or undulations on the smooth surface of rocks moving from
the direction of applied force.
computed axial tomography
(CAT or CT): The method by which scanners allow detailed internal
views of bodies such as mummies. The body is passed into the machine
and images of cross-sectional "slices" through the body
are produced.
concerted evolution
(molecular drive): A poorly understood evolutionary process that
produces uniformity of sequence in multiple copies of a gene.
conchoidal fracture:
The production of smooth convexities or concavities, similar to
those of a clamshell, when fractured.
conditional mutant:
A mutant organism that is normal under one set of conditions but
becomes seriously impaired or dies under other conditions.
condyle: A smooth,
rounded articular surface that is found in pairs.
conjugation: A process
having a unidirectional transfer of genetic information through
direct cellular contact between a donar ("male") and a
recipient ("female") bacterial cell.
consanguineal: A relative
by birth as distinguished from in-laws and step-relatives.
consensus sequence:
The sequence indicating which nucleotide is found most frequently
at each position.
conservative model:
A DNA replication scheme in which the two parental strands of DNA
remain together and serve as a template for the synthesis of a new
daughter double helix.
conspecific: Belonging
to the same species.
constitutive gene:
AA gene whose products are essential to the normal functioning of
the cell, no matter what the life-supporting environmental conditions
are. These genes are always active in growing cells.
constitutive heterochromatin:
Condensed chromatin that is always genetically inactive, and is
found at homolgous sites on chromosome pairs.
continuous trait: See
quantitative trait.
contributing allele:
An allele that contributes to the phenotype.
controlling site: A
specific sequence of nucleotide pairs adjacent to the gene where
the transcription of a gene occurs in response to a particular molecular
event.
convergence: The independent
evolution of the same, or very similar, features in two or more
species from different features in their last common ancestor.
convolutions: Wrinkles
on the surface of the brain.
context: An artifact's
context usually consisits of its immediate matrix (the material
surrounding it, e.g. gravel, clay, rock, or sand), its provenience
(horizontal and vertical position within the matrix), and its association
with other artifacts (occurrence together with other archaeological
remains, usually in the same matrix).
contextual seriation:
A method of relative dating pioneered by Flinders Petrie in the
19th century, in which artifacts are arranged according to the frequencies
of their co-occurrence in specific contexts.
continuous trait: See
quantitative trait.
coordinate induction:
The simultaneous transcription and translation of two or more genes
brought about by the presence of an inducer.
Cope's Rule: The generalization
that there is a steady increase in size in phyletic series.
coprolites: Fossilized
feces; these contain food residues that can be used to reconstruct
diet and subsistence activities.
core: A nucleus or
mass of rock that shows sigsn of detached piece removal. A core
is often considered an objective piece that functions primarily
as a source for detached pieces.
core enzyme: The protion
of the E. coli RNA polymerase that is the active enzyme and can
be written as a2ßß'?.
core tool: A core used
for chopping, cutting, or some activity other than as a source of
detached pieces.
coronal plane: A vertical
plane extending from side to side that divides the body into front
and back portions.
coronal suture: The
suture between the frontal bone and the parietal bones behind it.
coronoid process: A
hooked or curved projection. (1) The frontal part of the ascending
ramus of the mandible, forming a pointed projection at its top,
where part of the temporalis muscle attaches. (2) The lower projecting
part of the ulna's trochlear notch, below the olecranon process.
corporate group: A
social group whose members act as a legal individual in terms of
collective rights to property, a common group name, collective responsibility,
and so on.
corpus: Body, the principle
part of the bone.
corpus callosum: The
bundle of neurons that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
correlation coefficient:
A statistic that measures the strength of the association between
two variables.
cortex (cortical layer):
1) Outer surface or layer, the dense outer layers of most bones
2) chemical or mechanical weathered surface on rocks.
cosmids: Cloning vectors
derived from plasmids that are capable of cloning large fragments
of DNA. In addition to the features of plasmid cloning vectors (i.e.,
origin or replication and selectable marker(s) for growth in bacteria),
cosmids contain phage lambda cos sites which permit recombinant
DNA molecules that are constructed to be packaged into the lambda
phage head in vitro.
cotransduction: The
simultaneous transduction of two or more bacterial genes; a good
indication that the bacterial genes are closely linked.
cotranslational transport:
The movement of a protein into the ER simultaneously with its synthesis.
coupling: An arrangement
in which the two wild-type alleles are on one homologous chromosome
and the two recessive mutant alleles are on the other.
covariance: A statistic
used to calculate the correlation coefficient between two variables.
The covariance is calculated by taking the sum of (x - /x)(y - /x)
over all pairs of values for the variables x and y, where /x is
the mean of the x values and /y is the mean of all y values.
cranial base angle:
The angle between the basi-occiput and the body of the sphenoid,
incorrectly thought to be related to speech capacity.
cranium: The skull,
without the mandible, made up of 28 bones.
crenulation: Wrinkled
surface of the tooth enamel.
crepuscular:Active
primarily in dim light, around the hours of dawn and dusk.
crest: A ridge with
a sharp edge caused by muscle pull. A simple crest is created by
the unidirectional pull of a single muscle, a compound crest by
the opposing pulls of two muscles.
crisscross inheritance:
A type of gene transmission passed from a male parent to a female
child to a male grandchild.
cross-fertilization:
A term used for the fusion of male and female gametes from different
individuals; the bringing together of genetic material from different
individual for the purpose of genetic recombination.
crossing-over: A term
introduced by Morgan and E. Cattell, in 1912, to describe the process
of reciprocal chromosomal interchange by which recombinants arise.
cross-modal transfer:
The integration of sensory, motor, and cognitive actions in the
parietal association area.
cross-sectional studies:
Examination of changes by studying many individuals of different
ages at a single time.
Crural Index: Ratio
of the length of the lower leg (tibia) divided by the length of
the upper leg (femur) multiplied by 100.
crush: In chewing,
the action created by the forces between opposing teeth, acting
in a direction that is close to perpendicular to the plane of contact.
cryptocrystalline:
Refers to a rock of fine-grained aggregate crystalls less than 3
µm in diameter.
cultural anthropology:
A subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the non-biological,
behavioral aspects of society; i.e. the social, linguistic, and
technological components underlying human behavior. Two important
branches of cultural anthropology are ethnography (the study of
living cultures) and ethnology (which attempts to compare cultures
using ethnographic evidence). In Europe, it is referred to as social
anthropology.
cultural ecology: A
term devised by Julian Steward to account for the dynamic relationship
between human society and its environment, in which culture is viewed
as the primary adaptive mechanism.
culture: A term used
by anthropologists when referring to the non-biological characteristics
unique to a particular society.
culturgen (meme): A
basic unit of culture.
curated behavior: Behaviors
or strategies reflected in the archaeological record showing foresight
and planning through repairs, recycling, and reuse (cf. expedient
behavior).
cursorial: Fast running.
cusp: An elevation
on the occlusial surface of an unworn tooth.
cytohet: The genetic
condition of plant zygotes that display biparental inheritance;
the term is derived from "cytoplasmically heterozygous."
cytokinesis: A term
that refers to the division of the cytoplasm. The two new nuclei
compartmentalize into separate daughter cells, and the mitotic cell
division process is completed.
cytological marker:
A cytologically distinguishable feature of chromosomes.
cytosine (C): A pyrimidine
base found in RNA and DNA. In double-stranded DNA, cytosine pairs
with the purine guanine.
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