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pachynema: The stage
in meiosis (mid-prophase I) during which the homologous pairs of
chromosomes exchange chromosome regions.
pair bonding: Forming
an intense social connection between monogamous mates.
palate: Bony roof of
the mouth.
paleo- (palaeo-): Old.
paleoentomology: The
study of insects from archaeological contexts. The survival of insect
exoskeletons, which are quite resistant to decomposition, is an
important source of evidence in the reconstruction of paleo-environments.
paleoethnobotany: The
recovery and identification of plant remains from archaeological
contexts, important in the reconstruction of past environments and
economies.
Paleogene: Earliest
division of the Tertiary including the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene.
Paleolithic: Literally
the Old Stone Age, the period when humans relied on a stone technology
to sustain a scavenging/hunting/gathering adaptation. The archaeological
period before 10,000 BC.
paleomagnetic reversal:
See magnetic reversal.
paleomagnetic stratigraphy:
The arrangement of geological strata based upon the alternating
direction of residual magnetism, compared with the world geomagnetic
polarity column by other aspects of the sequence such as preserved
fauna.
paleomagnetism: Residual
magnetism from the earth's magnetic field detectable in rock.
paleosol: Rock or sediment
formed from an ancient or fossil soil.
palimpset: Writing
material that is used more than one time after earlier writing has
been erased.
palmar: Pertaining
to the palm side of the hand.
palmigrade: Refers
to a type of quadrupedal locomotion characterized by weight bearing
on the palms of the hands rather than on the digits or knuckles.
palynology: Study of
plant pollens and spores.
panmictic populations:
One in which genotypes associate at random (i.e., with equal probabilities
of mating between any two individuals of opposite sex).
paracentric inversion:
An inversion in which the inverted segment occus on one chromosome
arm and does not include the centromere.
paradigmatic view:
Approach to science, developed by Thomas Kuhn, which holds that
science develops from a set of assumptions (paradigm) and that revolutionary
science ends with the acceptance of a new paradigm which ushers
in a period of normal science.
parallel cousin: Ego's
father's brother's child or mother's sister's child, or more distant
cousin classed terminologically with these first cousins.
parallelism: See homoplasy.
parallel flaking: Flake
scars are parallel to each other and leave a sharp edge on the objective
piece. These flakes are removed in a serial fashion by following
the ridge created by the previously removed flake.
paramastoid process:juxtamastoid
process.
parapatric: Having
geographic ranges that border extensively on one another.
parapatric speciation:
The divergence of two neighboring populations, while meeting in
a contact zone, until they become two different species.
parasagittal:Refers
to a plane through the body parallel to the sagittal plane.
parasexual system:
A system that achieves genetic recombination by means other than
the regular alternation of meiosis and fertilization.
parental-ditype (PD):
One of three types of tetrads possible when two genes are segregating
in a cross. The PD tetrad contains four nuclei, all of which are
parental genotypes, with two of one parent and two of the other
parent.
parental genotypes
(parental classes): Individuals among progeny of crosses that have
combinations of genetic markers like one or other of the parents
in the parental generation.
parental imprinting:
See genomic imprinting.
parietal: Wall. One
of the flat paired bones forming part of the lateral sides of the
skull.
parietal art: Paintings,
drawings, or engravings on cave walls.
parietal association
area: Part of the parietal association complex that is posterior
to the sensory region of the parietal lobe. The integration of sensory,
motor, and cognitive actions, or cross-modal transfer, takes place
in this area.
parsimony: The use
of as few assumptions as possible in an explanation or theory, "Occam's
razor" is an example.
partial dominance:
See incomplete (partial) dominance.
particulate factors:
The term Mendel used to describe the factors that carried hereditary
information and were transmitted from parents to progeny through
the gametes. We now know these factors by the name genes.
patella: Kneecap, a
large sesamoid bone at the knee.
patellar groove: Depression
on the distal femur in which the kneecap patella moves.
pathology: A feature
related to disease or its consequences.
patrilineal: Based
on relationship through the father's side.
patrilineage: See lineage.
patrilineal descent:
Descent traced through a line of ancestors in the male line (see
agnatic descent).
patrilocal: See virilocal.
patristic homology:
Homologies based on comparing features in some clade or lineage.
pebble tools: Simple
artifacts made on cores of stone, sometimes also applied to the
cores themselves even when they are not used as tools per se.
pedigree analysis:
A family tree investigation that involves the careful compilation
of phenotypic records of the family over several generations.
peer-polity interaction:
The full ranges of exchanges taking place - including imitation,
emulation, competition, warfare, and the exchange of material goods
and information - between autonomous (self-governing) sociopolitical
units, generally within the same geographic region.
pelvis: The bony structure
comprised of the sacrum and three paired bones: the ischimu, ilium,
and pubis which fuse together in adults as paired innominates.
penecontemporary: Living
at or almost the same time.
penetrance: The frequency
with which a dominant or homozygous recessive gene manifests itself
in the phenotype of an individual.
pentose sugar: A 5-carbon
sugar that, along with a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group,
is one of the three parts of a nucleotide, the building block of
RNA and DNA.
peptide bond: A covalent
bond in a polypeptide chain that joins the a-carboxyl group of one
amino acid to the a-amino group of the adjacent amino acid.
peptidyl transferase:
The enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the peptide bond in protein
synthesis.
percent: A fractional
proportion multiplied by 100.
percussion flaking:
A method of striking with a percussor to detach flakes from an objective
piece. Different methods or percussion flaking using different kinds
of percussors tend to produce distinctive detached pieces.
pericentric inversion:
An inversion in which the inverted segment includes the parts of
both chromosome arms and therefore includes the centromere.
periglacial: A region
near or surrounding a glacial area.
perikymata: Elevations
between the grooves encircling tooth crowns that are caused by growth-related
segmentation of enamel crystals.
period: In geology,
a division of an era, as the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era.
peripatric speciation:
Speciation at the periphery, through the modification of a peripherally
isolated founder population.
permafrost: Permanently
frozen subsoil.
petalia: Extension
of parts of one side of the brain beyond the corresponding parts
on the other side.
petrography: A branch
of the study of rocks in which they are examined in thin section
and in hand specimen.
petrosal crest: A crest
that follows along the base of the auditory tube.
petrous pyramid: The
petrous portion of the temporal bone is the pyramid-shaped process
that extends across the cranial base, housing the internal ear.
P generation: The parental
generation, i.e., the immediate parents of an F1.
phage lysate: The progeny
phages released following lysis of phage-infected bacteria.
phage vector: A phage
that carries pieces of bacterial DNA between bacterial strains in
the process of transduction.
phalanx (phalange):
Bone of the finger or toe digits.
phenetics: A method
of systematics in which relationships are determined by degrees
of similarity.
phenocopy: An abnormal
individual resulting from special environmental conditions. It mimics
a similar phenotype caused by gene mutation.
phenocrysts: The isolated
large crystals in pophyry.
phenogram: A diagram
indicating degree of similarity among taxa.
phenon: A sample of
anatomically similar specimens.
phenotype: Appearance
of an individual; the observed set of characteristics, the result
of the interaction between genotype and environment.
phenotypic correlation:
An association between two traits.
phenotypic variance
(Vp): A measure of a trait's variability.
phonemes: The individual
sound units in a language.
phosphate group: A
component, along with a pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base, of
a nucleotide, the building block of RNA and DNA. Because phosphate
groups are acidic in nature, DNA and RNA are called nucleic acids.
phosphodiester bond:
A covalent bond in RNA and DNA between a sugar and a phosphate.
Phosphodiester bonds form the repeating sugar-phosphate array of
the backbone of DNA and RNA.
photoreactivation (light
repair): One way by which thymine dimers can be repaired. The dimers
are reverted directly to the original form by exposure to visible
light in the wavelength range 320-370 nm.
phratry: A grouping
of clans related by traditions of common descent or historical alliance
based on kinship.
phyletic: Pertaining
to descent (cf. phylogeny).
phylogenetics: The
study of how genealogical relationships can be determined from morphological
similarities that are homologous.
phylogenetic species:
A monophyletic group of individuals whose identity can be diagnosed
by at least one shared unique feature.
phylogeny: A hypothesis
about how fossils and living species are related in a genealogical
framework.
physical anthropology:
A subdiscipline of anthropology dealing with the study of human
biological or physical characteristics and their evolution.
physical map: Map of
physically identifiable regions or markers on genomic DNA, constructed
without genetic recombination analysis.
phytoliths: Minute
particles of silica derived from the cells of plants, able to survive
after the organism has decomposed or been burned. They are common
in ash layers, pottery, and even on stone tools.
pilaster: A stout ridge
of bone extending around the distal surface of the central part
of the femoral shaft, supporting the linea aspera.
Pilastric Index: A
measure of shape at the midshaft of the femur, determined by dividing
the anterior-posterior length by the transverse breadth.
piriform aperture:
The pear-shaped nasal opening of the skull; anterior nasal aperture.
pistil: The female
reproductive organ in a flowering plant that typically consists
of the stigma, the style, and the ovary.
piston core: A device
for extracting columns of sediment from the ocean floor. Dates for
the different layers are obtained by radiocarbon, archaeomagnetic,
or uranium series methods.
plantar: Pertaining
to the sole of the feet.
plantarflexion: Bending
action at the ankle or internal foot joints so that the palms and
soles point down.
plantigrady: A stance
or locomotion in which the body is positioned so that the palms
and soles point downward.
plaque: A round, clear
area in a lawn of bacteria on solid medium that results from the
lysis of cells by repeated cycles of phage lytic growth.
plasma membrane: Lipid
bilayer that surrounds the cytoplasm of both animal and plant cells.
plasmid: An extrachromosomal
genetic element consisting of double-stranded DNA that replicates
autonomously from the host chromosome.
platymera: Anteroposterior
flattening of the upper shaft of the femur.
Platymeric Index: A
measure of shape at the upper part of the shaft of the femur; determined
by dividing the anterior-posterior length just below the lesser
trochanter by the transverse breadth.
platyrrhine:New World
monkey infraorder.
pleiotropic: Genes
that influence the expression of more than one trait.
pleiotropy: Multiple
phenotypic effects resulting from a single mutant gene.
plesiomorphic: A characteristic
whose form is like the ancestral condition.
Plio-Pleistocene: Shorthand
term literally referring to the Pliocene and Pleistocene together,
but usually meaning the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene.
plunging termination:
The distal end of a flake that turns toward the objective piece
removing the lower end of the objective piece, creating a detached
piece that has a large distal end relative to the proximal end.
pluvial: A continent-wide
unusually wet period.
pneumatization: Air
spaces in cranial bones such as the mastoid area, or nasal sinuses.
point mutants: Organisms
whose phenotypes result from an alteration of a single nucleotide
pair.
point mutation: A mutation
caused by a substitution of one base pair for another.
point of applied force:
The location of lithic artifacts where force has been applied to
remove a flake from an objective piece (see striking platform).
polarity: A term referring
to a bacterial operon that codes for a polygenic mRNA. It is the
phenomenon whereby certain nonsense mutations not only result in
the loss of activity of the enzyme encoded by the gene in which
they are located but also reduce significantly or abolish the synthesis
of enzymes coded by structural genes on the operatordistal side
of the mutation. The mutations are called polar mutations.
polity: A politically
independent or autonomous social unit, whether simple or complex,
which may in the case of a complex society (such as a state) comprise
many lesser dependent components.
pollex: Thumb.
polyandry: Marriage
of a women to two or more men.
poly(A) polymerase:
The enzyme that catalyzes the production of the 3'poly(A) tail.
poly(A) site: The 3'
end of mRNA to which 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides are added as
part of mRNA posttranscriptional modification.
polycentrism: Fraz
Weidenreich's theory of multiple centers of human evolution connected
by a network of genic exchanges.
polygene (multiple-gene)
hypothesis for quantitative inheritance: The hypothesis that quantitative
traits are controlled by many genes.
polygenic: A character,
controlled by several or numerous genes.
polygenic mRNA (polycistronic
mRNA): A single mRNA transcript in prokaryotic operons of two or
more adjacent structural genes that specifies the amino acid sequences
of the corresponding polypeptides.
polygenic traits: Traits
encoded by many loci.
polygyny: Any type
of social organization in which one male mates with more than one
female.
polylinker (multiple
cloning site): A region of clustered unique restriction sites in
a cloning vector.
polymerase chain reaction
(PCR): A method used to replicate defined DNA sequences selectively
and repeatedly from a DNA mixture.
polymorphic: Showing
a variety of forms; a feature with alternative character states.
polynucleotide: A linear
sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA.
polypeptide: A polymeric,
covalently bonded linear arrangement of amino acids joined by peptide
bonds.
polyploidy: The condition
of a cell or organism that has more than its normal number of sets
of chromosomes.
polyribosome (polysome):
The complex between an mRNA molecule and all the ribosomes that
are translating it simultaneously.
polytene chromosome:
A special type of chromosome representing a bundle of numerous chromatids
that have arisen by repeated cycles of replication of single chromatids
without nuclear division. This type of chromosome is characteristic
of various tissues of Diptera.
polytypic: A variable
taxons that contains more than one taxon of the next lower category,
such as a species with several subspecies or races.
pongid: A member of
the family Pongidae, humans and the great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas,
and orangutans) and their unique ancestors and collaterals.
pongine: Member of
the subfamily Ponginae (the large-bodied Asian apes).
population: A community
of potentially breeding individuals, usually at a given locality
or within a limited geographic region.
population genetics:
A branch of genetics that describes in mathematical terms the consequences
of Mendelian inheritance on the population level.
porion: The uppermost
point in the margin of the auditory meatus; the point which, with
the lowest point on the orbit, defines the Frankfort Horizontal.
porphyry: An igneous
rock consisting of coarse mineral grains scattered through a mixture
of fine mineral grains.
positional behavior:
How, when, and why an animal postures and moves itself within a
particular environment.
positional cloning:
The isolation of a gene association with a genetic disease on the
basis of its approximate chromosomal position.
position effect: A
change in the phenotypic effect of one or more genes as a result
of a change in their position in the genome.
positive assortative
mating: A mating that occurs more frequently between individuals
who are phenotypically similar than it does among randomly chosen
individuals.
positive feedback:
A system's response to external stimuli that leads to further change
and reinforces it.
postcanine teeth: The
premolars and molars, also called cheek teeth.
postcranium (postcranial
skeleton): All elements of the skeleton below the skull.
posterior: Back.
posterior tooth loading:
Force placed on the postcanine teeth, usually during mastication.
postorbital bar: Bony
ridge surrounding the lateral side of the orbit in some primates
and many other mammals.
postorbital breadth:
The minimum transverse breadth of the frontal bone, the distance
across the postorbital constriction.
postorbital constriction:
Narrowing of the (frontal and sphenoidal walls of the) skull behind
the orbits, where they form the inner wall of the temporal fossa.
posttranslational transport:
Transport in which synthesis of the protein is completed before
import into the organelle takes place.
potassium-argon dating:
A method used to date rocks up to billions of years old, though
it is restricted to volcanic material no more recent than approximately
100,000 years old. One of the most widely used methods in the dating
of early hominid sites in Africa.
pot lid fracture: A
concave scar on the surface of rock usually caused by differential
expansion and contraction of the rock, such as heating by fire.
power grip: Hand hold
in which there is grasping with the fingers positioned perpendicular
to the object but with the palm diagonal, and using the thumb for
applying significant force.
preadaptation: The
concept that species, or their features, can be predesigned to meet
the requirements of future adaptations.
prebregmatic eminence:
See bregmatic eminence.
precision grip: Fine
manipulation with the finger and thumb tips, as in turning a screwdriver.
precocial: Early or
advanced in development.
precursor mRNA (primary
transcripts; pre-mRNA): The initial transcript of a gene that is
modified and/or processed to produce the mature, functional mRNA
molecule. In eukaryotes, for example, the transcript is modified
at both the 5' and the 3' ends, and in a number of cases RNA sequences
that do not code for amino acids are present and must be excised.
precursor RNA molecule
(primary transcripts; pre-RNA): The initial transcript whose processing
may involve the addition and/or removal of bases, the chemical modification
of some bases, or the cleavage of sequences from the precursor.
precursor rRNA (pre-rRNA):
A primary transcript of adjacent rRNA genes (16S,23S, and 5S rRNA
genes in prokaryotes; 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes in eukaryotes)
plus flanking and spacer DNA that must be processed to release the
mature rRNA molecules.
precursor tRNA (pre-tRNA):
A primary transcript of a tRNA gene whose bases must be extensively
modified and that must be processed to remove extra RNA sequences
in order to produce the mature tRNA molecule. In some cases, the
primary transcript may contain the sequences of two or more tRNA
molecules.
preferential: Of a
marriage pattern (e.g., marriage with a cross-cousin, a brother's
widow, etc.), socially valued and desirable, but not conjoined.
prehensile: Capable
of grasping.
prehistory: The period
of human history before the advent of writing.
premastication: Preparing
foods by softening or pounding before they are chewed, or chewing
foods before they are presented to infants and young children.
premaxilla: Front part
of the palate and subnasal maxilla, anterior to the middle of the
canine roots and housing the incisors.
premolar: Tooth lying
between the canine and molars, usually smaller than the molars and
generally flat except for the most anterior lower tooth in species
with a canine cutting complex.
Preneanderthal Hypothesis:
The theory, mainly applied to Europe, that proposes two separate
lineages can be found in the Middle or Late Pleistocene. It posits
that Neanderthals diverged from a line leading to modern Europeans
just before they became specialized.
Presapiens Hypothesis:
The theory, mainly applied to Europe, that proposes two separate
human lineages can be found in the Middle Pleistocene. One lineage
(presapiens) evolved directly into modern H. sapiens populations
and closely resembles these modern forms at an early date. The second
lineage (preneanderthals) evolved into the European Neanderthal
populations of the earlier Wurm glaciation and subsequently became
extinct.
prescriptive marriage:
In alliance threory, a requirement that marriage be with a partner
in a particular kinship category. Even where "incorrect"
marriages occur, they are likely to be classified as if they were
correct, and kinship relations readjusted accordingly.
pressure flaker: A
tool used to press a detached flake from an objective piece. This
tool is often pointed and made of antler, wood, or bone.
pressure flaking: The
removal of a detached piece from an objective piece by pressing
rather than by percussion.
prestige goods: A term
used to designate a limited range of exchange goods to which a society
ascribes high status or value.
prestructuring: The
inherent tendency for certain neural connections to form, with the
consequence that particular behavioral associations are easier,
or more likely, to be learned.
Pribnow box: A part
of the promoter sequence in prokaryotic genomes that is located
about 10 base pairs upstream from the transcription starting point.
The consensus sequence for the Pribnow box is TATAAT. The Pribnow
box is often referred to as the TATA box.
primary nondisjunction
(nondisjunction): A rare event in which sister chromatids (in mitosis)
or chromosomes contained in pairing configurations (in meiosis)
fail to be distributed to opposite poles.
primary transcripts:
See precursor RNA molecules.
primer: See RNA primer.
primitive feature:
See plesiomorphic.
primitive valuables:
A tern coined by Dalton to describe the tokens of wealth and prestige,
often of specially valued items, that were used in the ceremonial
exchange systems of non-state societies; examples include the shell
necklaces and bracelets of the kula system.
primosome: A complex
of E. coli primase, helicase, and perhaps other polypeptides that
together become functional in catalyzing the initiation of DNA synthesis.
principle of independent
assortment (second law): The law that the factors (genes) for different
traits assort independently of one another. In other words, genes
on different chromosomes behave independently in the production
of gametes.
principle of segregation
(first law): The law that two members of a gene pair (alleles) segregate
(separate) from each other during the formation of gametes. As a
result, one-half the gametes carry one allele and the other half
carry the other allele.
probabilistic sampling:
Sampling method, employing probability theory, designed to draw
reliable general conclusions about a site or region, based on small
sample areas. Four types of sampling strategies are recognized:
(1) simple random ampling, (2) stratified random sampling, (3) systematic
sampling, (4) stratified systematic sampling.
probability: The ratio
of the number of times a particular event occurs to the number of
trials during which the event could have happened.
proband: in human genetics,
an affected person, with whom the study of a character in a family
begins.
process: A long, tapering
bony projection.
procumbent: Inclined
forward or protruding.
product rule: The rule
that the probability of two independent events occurring simultaneously
is the product of each of their probabilities.
prognathous: Forward
protrusion of the facial region, as a whole or in part (see alveolar
prognathism), (cf. orthognathous).
projectile point: A
biface that contain a haft area and is used as a projectile tip.
These are often identified as arrow points, dart points, and spear
points.
prokaryote: A cellular
organism whose genetic material is not located within a membrane-bound
nucleus.
promoter elements (modules):
Consensus sequecnes found in the promoter region of the transcription
initiation site. The elements are the TATA box (or Goldberg-Hogness
box), CAT element, and the GC element.
promoter site: A specific
regulatory nucleotide sequence in the DNA to which RNA polymerase
binds for the initiation of transcription.
pronation: Rotation
of the forearm so that the palm faces downward, the reverse movement
from supination.
proofreading: in DNA
synthesis, the process of recognizing a basepair error during the
polymerization events and correcting it. Proofreading is a property
of the DNA polymerase in prokaryotic cells.
prophage: A temperate
bacteriophage integrated into the chromosome of a lysogenic bacterium.
It replicates with the replication of the host cell's chromosomes.
prophase: The first
stage in mitosis or meiosis during which the chromosomes (already
replicated) condense and become visible under the microscope.
prophase I: The first
stage of meiosis. There are several stages of phophase I, including
leptonema, zygonema, pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis.
prophase II: The second
stage of meiosis during which there is chromosome contraction.
propliopithecine: Member
of the subfamily Propliopithecinae.
proportion of polymorphic
loci: A ratio calculated by determining the number of polymorphic
loci and dividing by the total number of loci examined.
proposita: In human
genetics, an affected female person, with whom the study of a character
in a family begins.
propositus: in human
genetics, an affected male person, with whom the study of a character
in a family begins.
prosthion: The most
forward point on the upper jaw between the central incisors.
protein: One of a group
of high-molecular weight, nitrogen-containing organic compounds
of complex shape and composition.
protein degradation
control: Regulation of the protein degradation rate.
proto-oncogenes: A
gene that in normal cells functions to control the normal proliferation
of cells, and that when mutated or changed in any other way becomes
an oncogene.
prototroph: A strain
that is a wild type for all nutritional requirement genes and thus
requires no supplements in its growth medium.
provenience: The exact
circumstances of how a specimen is related to the deposit in which
it is found.
provenance: The geological
origin of rock.
proximal: Closer to
the midline of the body, applies to the appendicular skeleton.
proximal end of flake:
The end of a flake or detached piece that contains the striking
platform. On a conchoidal flake the proximal end will contain the
bulb of force.
pseudo-archaeology:
The use of selective archaeological evidence to promulgate nonscientific,
fictional accounts of the past.
pseudodominance: The
unexpected expression of a recessive trait, caused by the absence
of the dominant allele.
pterion: Temple resion
of the skull, where the frontal, parietal, temporal, and sphenoid
bones meet.
pterygoid muscle: A
two part muscle extending from the lateral pterygoid plate to the
medial ramus and gonial angle (medial part, closing the jaw and
generating occlusal force) and the top of the ramus (lateral part,
opening the jaw and moving it from side to side).
pterygoid plate: Paired
bony plates on the inferior surface of the sphenoid bone, the lateral
ones for attachment of two muscles of mastication, the lateral and
medial pterygoid muscles.
pubis: The front of
the pelvis, formed by the parts of the innominate that meet at the
midline.
pulp (cavity): The
vascularized and innervated tissue enclosed in the center of a tooth.
Pulse Hypothesis: A
theory that begins with the assumption that all evolutionary changes
are related to speciations and extinctions. If so, during a period
of climate change the rates of speciation and extinction would be
expected to accelerate, and therefore major climatic changes create
a turnover pulse of rapid evolutionary change as whole new species
groups replace older ones.
Punctuated Equilibrium
Theory: A model of evolution in which changes occur when new species
are formed and only rarely are slowly and gradually accumulated
during the stable periods between speciations.
Punnett square: A matrix
that describes all the possible genetic fusions that will give rise
to the zygotes that will produce the next generation.
purine: A type of nitrogenous
base. In DNA and RNA the purines are adenine and guanine.
pyrimidine: A type
of nitrogenous base. Cytosine is a pyrimidine in DNA and RNA; thymine
is a pyrimidine in DNA, and uracil is a pyrimidine in RNA.
pyrotechnology: The
intentional use and control of fire by humans or other hominids.
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